Ulaanbaatar

INTRODUCTION

Mongolia is located in the center of Asia. The population is 2.4 million, one quarter of the population resides in its capital city of Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia is divided into 21 aimags, 343 sums, 1400 bags. Ulaanbaatar consists of 9 districts and 122 khoroos. 55 per cent of population lives in urban areas and 45 per cent in rural areas. Density of the population is 15 persons per 1000 hectares.

According to 1998 statistics 50.4 per cent of the population is female. Population over 70 years of age is 56.729, of which 58.7 per cent are women. In 1998 life expectancy was 64 for men and 69 for women. Mongolian women live in average five years longer then men. However, according to the existing legislation, they can retire from five to twenty years earlier than men.

The position of women in history of Mongolia

Extensive nomadic livestock breeding dominated in the country for many hundreds years. Traditional lifestyle determined by the needs of household production excluded women from public life. Although women’s role and status in domestic matters and livestock breeding were important, women’s status outside of household was low and their political and spiritual rights being denied. The People’s Revolution of 1921 brought major changes for Mongolian women. They become literate and were provided with opportunities to participate in the political, social and economic life of the country. The first Constitution of Mongolia adopted in 1924 stated that ‘all citizens of Mongolia are entitled to equal rights irrelevant of their ethnic origin, religious belief or sex’. Arranged marriage for women was prohibited by the law in 1925. At the same time, women received the right to vote and to be elected. Women’s civil rights were enshrined in the legislative documents of 1926.

In the years of the people’s revolution women received primary, secondary and tertiary education much the same as men. Furthermore, they worked in the all sectors of the public sphere similar to men. Yet this did not extend to decision making where men still dominated top management, as prescribed by social norms and customs. Due to gender quotas set by the ruling communist party, token women were represented in the State Ikh Hural (parliament) at the levels as high as 20-23 per cent. Only one or two women worked as a deputy Ministers and no woman was a Minister.

Under centrally planned economy socialist state guaranteed employment and implemented a formal equitable labor policy. However, so-called women’s occupations have been formed when health care sector, education, child daycare and other sectors were dominated by female workforce.

During this period, the policy of the ruling party and government in regard of women was mainly directed towards social assistance to women, particularly their health and living conditions. In the 1960-1970s many progressive measures were taken such as the creation of jobs for women, adoption of a list of posts for women, organisation of advanced professional training and application of pension and benefit schemes favourable to women, including provision of generous support for child care, maternity leave and free universal maternity care. These measures have obviously helped women in building up their own social roles and identities. On the other hand, they were manifestation of an attitude that women are not active participants of social development, but passive recipients of social wealth. Such vision of women’s role and place has not been changed in the transition to a market economy as well.

Position of women in the transition period

Transition to democracy and an open-market economy has started in 1990. Multi-party system was established and political pluralism is allowed. The new democratic Constitution of 1992 guarantees freedoms and human rights for all citizens. New types of property have led to emergence of formal and informal sectors based on the private property alongside with the state property. Self-employed group of population has been formed, engaged in diverse activities on demand of the market. In rural areas, privatization of livestock has led to formation of the self-employed group of herders. According to data obtained by Women’s Information and Research Centre (WIRC) in their survey conducted in 1996-1997 in five regions of the country, including Ulaanbaatar with 3100 participants women constituted 55.8 per cent of the state sector employees, 46.2 per cent of the private sector employees, 58.9 per cent of the mixed property sector employees, 41.0 of the companies with foreign investment employees and 35.5 per cent of the non-governmental sector employees. Official 1997 statistics show that herders formed 48.6 per cent of the economically active population. Male female herder’s ratio amongst respondents of the WIRC’s above-mentioned survey was 54.8:45.2. Whereas 62.2 per cent of female herders have themselves chosen this path of employment, male herders did this in 64.7 per cent, 15.6 per cent of women were forced to this because they lost their jobs (for men - 11.9 per cent), 9.4 per cent of women - by parental decision and 7.5 per cent - through marriage to herdsman, 2.5 per cent - because of privatization of livestock ( for men - 4 per cent) and 2.5 per cent of women named other reasons for becoming herders.

With democratic transformation of the society people of Mongolia have got broad opportunities for development. However, emerging evidence suggests that the austerity program and structural reforms launched under the transition to a market economy has led to a gradual deterioration of social services and the retrenchment and unemployment.

Position of women has been significantly deteriorated as they have borne costs of the transition disproportionately. They suffer from higher rate of unemployment, inadequate health care services, low access to loans and information and poverty. Poverty is most apparent in lives of female headed households, number of which has been doubled from 1990-1997 and now have reached 54,530. One fourth of these are poor women with 6 or more children. Prostitution and trafficking in women are new social phenomenon in the Mongolian society.

a/ Political participation of women

Since 1990 together with men Mongolian women have been actively involved in the democratic transformation of the society. Since 1992 women have started to unify their efforts in the struggle for their political, civil, economic and social rights. Now more than 40 women’s NGOs direct their efforts to ensure full enjoyment by all women of their legitimate rights.

Although the Constitution of Mongolia assures equal rights of men and women in all spheres, women’s participation in political, social and economic decision making in comparison with men’s is significantly lower. In the first democratically elected Parliament in 1992 number of women dropped to 3.9 per cent since 1990 and significantly decreased at local level. Currently, women constitute 10.5 per cent in the Parliament and 11 per cent in the Government. There are no women amongst aimag and city governors and only 2.4 percent of sum and district governors are women. Women make up 6-13 per cent of elected representatives at all levels of the local hurals and 4-8 per cent of the Presidium of the Representatives at the local hurals. There are no female Chair of the local hurals at all. In the judiciary, women form 70 per cent of all legal professionals, however, they constitute only 17.5 per cent amongst Supreme Court Judges.

b/ The position of women in economy

During the current transition to an open-market economy, privatization, retrenchment and structural adjustment have been disproportionately borne by women.

Women were the first to be laid off upon closure or restructuring of the processing (light) industries, services and trade, those traditional industries where they were predominant. Life for the majority of them has worsened. Particularly women under 35 make up 52 per cent of unemployed people in 1998. Another example is that after disintegration of government owned agricultural farms and privatization of their livestock and machinery, more than 20,000 trained women lost their jobs.

At the same time, about 20,000 women aged 35-55 were pushed to early retirement on the grounds of having given birth to 4 or more children. Apart from causing significant financial and psychological loss it harmed them in many other ways. For example, having been pushed to early retirement, under current Social Security Law they forfeited their pensions which were replaced by small compensation of 6000-13000 MNT (6-13 USD) per month. Such amount puts these women at the extreme poverty level.

Government has failed either to generate new jobs for these women or to provide them with loans or aid. Furthermore, no policy was implemented on training or retraining in order to improve skills or change profession through formal or informal education.

Opportunities outside the state sector are fewer for women than for men. Loans from the government or international organizations can be obtained if proper mortgage or acquaintance (personal contact) in a bank is available. However, many women willing to and capable of running their own small or medium size private business have been unable to get any loans. Women cannot get large loans as they refuse to give bribes, so they cannot enjoy fully their economic rights. This happens despite the National Programme of Action for the Advancement of Women saying that "mechanisms ensuring equal opportunities and improvement of women’s participation in distribution and ownership of property, loans, technologies and information should be created".

Under Mongolian laws foreign investors enjoy customs and income tax exemptions in the first three years of operation, but Mongolian citizens do not enjoy such advantages. Domestic business owners, particularly women, suffer from unfavorable conditions and are unable successfully develop their services or trade. Opportunities for obtaining small-scale loans for job generation and building up working capital continue to be limited for women.

Recent privatization of livestock has allowed herders to meet their needs for food and other goods, however, the workload of women-herders has been significantly increased. Female herders now spend more time on processing products of animal husbandry, child-rearing activities and household work. Rural women are restricted in their enjoyment of their legitimate rights in terms of working hours, wages and paid annual leave. Moreover, their contribution in the economic development has not been recognized and rewarded properly. They have been denied maternity leave and child care benefits.

Burden of women has been significantly increased in general. Because of high rate of inflation women have to work more hours to earn additional income. Public servants have to run private businesses after office hours. Domestic responsibilities and need for household subsistence contribute in such double and even triple burden of women.

Self-employment makes a significant contribution to the household and national economy. However, in the new for Mongolia informal sector labour protection is poor and people are not satisfactorily covered by social and medical insurance. Majority of self-employed women can’t get paid maternity leaves and other benefits related to reproductive function.

c/Education of women.

Mongolian women possess professional qualifications in agriculture, science and other sectors similar to men, and in some sectors their number even prevails. According to 1998 statistics, a total of 502,300 people studied in primary, secondary and tertiary education institutions. 10.1 per cent of these students or 50,900 studied at university and college level. Female students comprised 62 per cent of all postgraduate students, 68.1 per cent of undergraduate students pursuing bachelors degrees, 84 per cent of students pursuing study leading to a Diploma and 52-54 per cent of those who studied in vocational and secondary schools. However, it is unclear how resources that have been invested into their education and human potential of those educated women are going to be fully used in meeting the needs and demands for development of our society.

d/ Violence against women.

In recent years the growing problem of violence against women in the domestic sphere has attracted public attention. It is one of the serious reasons restricting women’s participation in political, economic and social life. In a survey conducted by the National Centre Against Violence in 1998 amongst 300 women in 6 districts of Ulaanbaatar one in three women has experienced violence. On the question of how domestic violence affects participation in public life 30.3 percent of respondents replied that it decreases interest to work, 22.7 percent that it affects self-confidence, 20 percent - affects their social status and that they lose respect from colleagues, 9.7 - loss of patience, 17.3 per cent named another consequence (lower participation in public activities, lower access to information, loss of friends and colleagues)

Article 16 (14) of the Constitution of Mongolia provides that citizens shall enjoy the right "not to testify against ... family, or parents and children". Women-victims of domestic violence ‘enjoy ‘ their right that creates a good legal environment for perpetration of domestic violence crimes against themselves, children and other members of family.

Another problem faced by women is unspoken but widespread sexual harassment at workplace. Cultural attitudes and dependence on employer caused by lack of jobs in general prevents an active struggle against this form of violence against women.

64.6 per cent of men did not face any form of discrimination or restriction at the workplace, but only 43.8 per cent of women could say the same. 5.2 per cent of men and 7.5 per cent of women experienced discrimination on the basis of age. No men experienced gender discrimination but 8.8 per cent of women saw it. Discrimination on physical appearance "attractiveness" men was 4.3 per cent, women - 5.2 per cent; by wealth men - 5.9 per cent, women - 6.88 per cent. 34 per cent of male respondents and 56.1 per cent of females stated that they victims of violence. 3.3 per cent of men and 10.2 per cent of women suffered from psychological abuse, 10.8 per cent of men and 12 per cent of women - from economic violence, 1.3 per cent of men and 4.2 per cent of women - from physical violence, 7.8 per cent of men and 8.1 per cent of women - from violence at work, 0 per cent of men and 1 per cent of women - from sexual violence.

TWO. EVIDENCE OF DISCRIMINATION/ DISPARITY.

• Women suffer more than men from unemployment.

Discrimination by gender is one of major problems faced by women in employment.

According to the data issued by the State Statistical Office of Mongolia by the end of 1998, women constituted 49.7 per cent of the working age population, 49.7 per cent of the economically active population and 46.7 per cent of employed. However, they constitute 52.2 per cent amongst unemployed. Women’s labour force participation rate dropped to 68.5 per cent and employment population ratio - to 63.2 per cent. These indexes have constantly decreased during the last five years. For example, women’s employment population ratio has dropped from 67.6 per cent in 1992 to 60.5 per cent in 1998. Although the number of working age women has increased by 1.4 per cent each year in the last five year period, the number of employed women has decreased by 1.2 per cent in 1995 and by 16.7 per cent in 1996. In 1998 the situation was similar. Overall unemployment increased by 14.9 per cent but women’s unemployment increased by 16 per cent. Statistical data shows that women’s unemployment rate has been constantly higher than men’s during the transition period and that majority of unemployed women are women aged 16-39,. According to 1998 statistics men’s unemployment rate was 5.2 per cent, but women’s was 6.4 per cent.

Another form of gender discrimination is discrimination associated with age and physical appearance. Numerous advertisements on job vacancies requiring smart appearance (being tall and pretty) have been dispersed through media, particularly those related to jobs in services. For example, an advertisement saying that "smart women of 18-25 age, height no less than 165 centimeters are invited to apply for the positions of shop assistants and bar waiters" was published in the central newspaper. Such provisions do not apply for men.

It is difficult for a woman aged 35 to get job in the both public and private sectors. For men such limit is imposed after age of 45. Such people are considered as more qualified workers, but on the other hand, being able to demand their rights they are potentially dangerous for employers. Employers in both formal and informal sectors discriminate women on the basis of their gender and age. Ministries, banks, companies prefer to hire young male graduates of schools to their female peers and even to experienced female applicants. Case: The district court has hired a recent male graduate of Law School of the Mongolian National University and denied 37 old female legal professional on the grounds that young people are more flexible and are not overloaded by their family responsibilities. Trend to hire male workers is widespread in Mongolia.

• Women are dismissed first as a result of privatization and structural adjustment;

Many people of working age, physically fit and willing to work were forced to retire due to structural adjustment and privatization. The majority of them were women who were pushed to retirement because they gave birth to 4 and more children which meant that the retirement age was reduced to 45 or lower. Some of these women were even aged 36. Now they are entitled to the tiny compensation and according to data received from the Bayanzurkh district of Ulaanbaatar city about 80 percent of all recipients are women.


In the sectors where women’s participation is high, namely trade, services, light industry and education, women make majority amongst job losers due to structural adjustment. For example, out of 109 persons who lost jobs of teachers in the Bayanzurkh district of Ulaanbaatar City during restructuring in the education sector 72 (or 66 per cent) were women. This is the situation in the only one site. According to statistical data, during 1992-1995 a number of men amongst those who lost jobs constituted 37 percent and women – 63 per cent.

• Lower position of women in employment

Women in general work at junior and middle auxiliary positions and are concentrated in the lower income sectors of public and private sector. According to the data from the survey conducted by the WIRC in 1997 only 6.8 per cent of women employees were at top managerial positions, 43.8 per cent at middle positions and 49.1. per cent at auxiliary positions.


Again, from the 1997 WIRC’s survey amongst all public servants at the provincial level women constitute 39.6 per cent and men – 60.1 per cent. Women make up 17.1 per cent and men – 82.9 per cent of senior managerial positions in the aimag governmental structures.

Women have not been promoted even in the sectors there they have been traditionally dominated. Despite the fact that female employees constitute 70 per cent in the public education schools men dominate in the management and make up 90 per cent of all directors of schools.

Another evidence of gender discrimination is concentration of women in the low paid jobs. Women occupy lower positions in the job hierarchy and men occupy more prestigious jobs that offer higher pay. As women occupy lower positions in the job hierarchy their salaries are correspondingly lower. Disparity in incomes also exists in the informal sector. According to the survey conducted by The National CEDAW Watch Network Centre in 1999 on 300 people engaged in the informal sector in 6 districts of Ulaanbaatar City women’s incomes were lower than of men. By the size of income 6.6 per cent of women and 10.1 per cent of men were earning more that 100,000 MNT per month, 33.6 per cent of men and 45.8 of women were earning less than 100,000 MNT. Self employed women with income of 20-50 thousands MNT constituted 67 per cent and men with the same income – 33 per cent. Another evidence of gender discrimination is concentration of women in the low paid jobs. than 200,000 MNT constitute only 22 per cent compared to 78 per cent that of men. This clearly shows that men prevail in higher income jobs compared to women in the self-employed sector analogously to the formal sector.

Discrimination against women is revealed in job segregation. Men dominate in agriculture, industry, construction, transport and communications sectors where they constitute 54-63 per cent. Women prevail in trade, services, education and health sectors where they make up 52-67 per cent.

According to the Mongolian legislation women and men receive the same remuneration for the same work, but men are receive mainly at higher pay and higher post jobs whereas women predominate at low pay, middle and auxiliary position. For example, 70 per cent of teachers and medical doctors and almost 100 per cent of workers of nurseries and childcare institutions are women.

The implementation of this provision is particularly difficult for rural women. Their working day lasts at least 12 hours, however their labour has not been properly recognized for many years. They are excluded from rare social and cultural events, conferences and forums, which are attended mainly by men. Men also receive almost all awards for the results of joint work. For example, amongst 518 participants of the conference of best herder’s in October 1998 there were only 28 women (5.4 per cent). Title of the ‘head of household’ traditionally of the oldest male member of the household demands men to take part in various meetings and receive awards whereas women stay at home and perform their traditional housekeeping duties.

• Women have lower promotion opportunities.

An important problem related to women’s employment is the lack of opportunities for promotion and building a professional career. According to the data obtained from the Political Education Academy, women constituted less than 20 per cent out of more than ten thousand graduates of its retraining courses in the last 5 years. Retraining of women in various professional fields as well as providing training in new occupations have been left outside of policy. So the number of women, who have access to such training, is very low and during transition period mainly men have attended in-country and out-country training and retraining schemes.


Currently there is no gender segregated or disaggregated statistical data on training of women working in the formal sector. However, according to data obtained by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre, 25.3 per cent have been attending retraining courses using their own savings, 50.7 per cent of them were men and 49.2 per cent - women. 74.6 per cent of all respondents replied that they have no opportunity to get training (48.3 per cent men and 51.6 per cent women). The reasons for this they described as financial constraints, need to look after children, poor opportunities in the family or temporary hindrances.

• Women’s work is less recognized in the public sphere

Women have been inadequately rewarded by the State for results of their work. They have been less visible in the public sphere and their enormous work in the households has not been recognized. For example, number of female Heroes of Labour is significantly lower than that of males.


Women’s workload is higher than of men’s but rural male herders have received more awards from the State in recognition of their work compared with women.

• Women receive less remuneration throughout their work life than men

Women receive less income for their contribution in society over a shorter period compared to men because of their reproductive work Average working life lasts 35 years, a woman with three children works 29 years, including 6 years in average spent for child bearing and child-rearing work. If 35 years remuneration for work is 16.470 USD (average 40.000 MNT per month), a woman would receive 13.647 USD or 2.823 USD less. However, actual work hours for men and women are correspondingly 102.200 and 166.075 clearly showing that women work 63.875 hours more.




Different retirement age for men and women is set by legislation; 55 - for women and 60 – for men.

According to the Pension’s legislation (1999) men aged 60, women aged 55, and women who gave birth to four or more children and who paid contributions for no less than 20 years into Pensions Fund are entitled to receive an old age pension. This legislation treats people of different sex in a different way and reflects traditional attitudes or the protectionist approach.

Given the fact that size of the old age benefit is too low majority of elderly cannot survive without support of children and suffer from poverty in a larger extent. Size of the benefit depends on the wages that an individual was earning before his/her retirement. As men occupy mainly senior positions with higher pay their pensions are also higher. For example, Mr. Gurjav, retired professor of the University receives 38,000 MNT (he holds a Doctorate degree and worked as a dean, head of Department and teacher for 30 years) and his wife, medical doctor (she worked as a practitioner for 30 years as well) receives 18,000 MNT. Therefore, old women belong to one of the most vulnerable groups of population. Majority of retired women have to look after grandchildren and thus are locked in the private sphere, they continue to fulfill invisible household work and to contribute to the household income.

• Women have been prohibited from recruitment in the many jobs with so called ‘harmful and heavy work conditions’. This list adopted by the Government seriously limits free choice of profession for women as prohibits women’s employment for all pregnant and non-pregnant women. Men are allowed to get employed in all professions. Most of these jobs are well paid and are given to men exclusively. Government does not take measures to improve safety at above-mentioned workplaces in order to allow women get employed there.
  
• Pregnant women are prohibited from work in conditions exposed to harmful chemical’s poisons or cold or hot temperatures. No measures are taken to improve work conditions or providing those women with equally paid other kinds of work. Women are restricted from such jobs that usually paid better. This imposes serious restrictions on their free choice of work.
  
• Pregnant and child rearing women almost denied right to be hired and often they are dismissed for being "unsuitable" for business interests.
  

A 27 years old female journalist from Erdenet with 5 years work experience and professional achievements has been refused for a promotion for the post of head of local TV on the basis that she was too young and had a baby. Her professional merits have not been considered and a 35 years old male with no professional education in the field has been appointed. Employers won’t hire a pregnant, breast-feeding woman or women with young children.


At recruitment some trade, production and service employers require women not to have children in the future and in the informal sector getting pregnant causes dismissal of women from their jobs. For example, some employers orally demand women not to get pregnant during their contract term.

• Mothers do not receive an adequate maternity benefit. Motherhood is not seen as a work for society, an amount of the maternity benefit is lower than their wage; Unemployed women who live under poverty line receive a tiny amount from the Social Welfare Fund. Women engaged in the informal sector, including herder women, are not entitled to any benefit for child bearing and child rearing. Almost all of them escape from paying social insurance contributions. Women after returning to a job after 2 years child care leave often are denied to re-enter job despite of provisions of the law that prohibits such refusals.
  

27 years old Jargalmaa gave birth in March 1996. According to the law she enjoyed both maternity leave and 2 years child care leave. On expiry of this leave she wanted to return to her post of accountant in the government office in province. She was suggested to stay for another year to look after her child and she agreed. In 1999 she was offered a cleaner’s job at the same office, because another accountant has already filled her position. Such violation of the Labour Code often occurs in the rural areas where fewer jobs available and population is not used to claim their rights in the court.

• Discriminative legislation as an example of laws, regulations, instructions reinforce social stereotypes on what sort of jobs are suitable for women
  

Article 16 (11) of the Constitution of Mongolia states that "men and women shall have equal right in political, economic, social, cultural fields and in family affairs" and legislation says that both parents have equal rights and duties in bringing up their children.


However, traditions that impose child-rearing activities only on women are still strong in the society. Moreover, Articles 80, 82, 83 of existing Labor Code and Articles 100-108 the new Labor Code (to come into force on 1 July 1999) imply that women only have right to child care of new born children and children up to three years age, by prohibiting dismissal of such mothers. Article 102 (1) states that pregnant woman and women with children of up to 8 years age cannot be employed in the night shifts, over time or be sent to another location unless they give their permission. Such provisions are manifestation of the protectionist approach towards women and part of restrictions of men’s rights in bringing up their children. They also cause discrimination in admission of women to work. It is a violation of the principle of joint parental responsibility in the existing legislation. Such provisions legalize biased approach in considering childcare duties as a prerogative of women only. They also seriously limit those men who are interested in contributing into children’s up bringing.

FACTORS CONTRIBUTING TO DISCRIMINATION:

Women face discrimination in employment due to social attitudes based on traditions, customs and stereotypes of women reinforced by socio-economic conditions of the transition period.

Collapse of the entire social, political and economic system in the country in the early 1990s has turmoiled lives of all population without any except. Closure of state owned industries due to economic crisis and structural adjustment in all sectors has led to reduction of workplaces in general and high rates of unemployment. Many women were dismissed first, mainly from the medium and junior level positions. According to the survey conducted by the TCEDAWWNC in 1999 on 300 people involved in informal business, 30.2 per cent of female respondents and 17.6 per cent of male respondents have been forced to this extremely insecure sector because of retirement, structural adjustment, manager's attitude and because of their gender.

Another important factor that has affected women's employment pattern was massive closure of state-owned childcare facilities. During period of 1990-1996 the number of childcare centers has dropped from 441 to 38. Day care premises have been privatized for use for other purposes such as bars, restaurants or business entities. Additionally, deterioration of day care services, particularly food and childcare activities, have affected parental willingness to send children to childcare. The idea of bringing up children in the social institutions has been discredited after failure of socialist system when parents have preferred to bring their children within the family. All these factors have pushed women, particularly women under 35, to be engaged mainly in the unpaid and undervalued work as childcare and housekeeping and, further, estrange them from the public sphere.

Overall economic crisis in the country has been combined with growth of new private and informal sectors in economy. Such newly established entities and organizations suffer from weak economic and organizational structure and lack of managerial skills. They usually show low respect for the law. Having limited possibilities or willingness to improve work conditions employers establish own, arbitrary policies in employment. On the other hand, state has no strong working mechanism for the implementation of the law and control over these newly mushroomed entities.

Poor law enforcement. According to the survey conducted by the MWLA on the results of the last 5 years criminal court judgements show that no employer has been punished for the unlawful dismissal of pregnant or breast feeding women. That fact manifests that such claims are adjudicated only according to the Civil Code. Women mainly remain out of jobs.

According to the survey by the National CEDAW Watch Network (1999) 65.6 per cent of female respondents employed in the informal sector said that jobs would not be kept as this depends exclusively on the personal opinion of employer and unstable socio-economic and political situation in the country.

Discriminative trends not to recruit women on the grounds of gender that were flourishing under the previous system have been reinforced during current transition period. Women as a weak sex are seen as auxiliary labour force in the public sphere. According to traditions women's role in household is seen as more important and their potential contribution into development of the society is under-estimated. Proverb like "women's hair is long and mind is short" is a bright manifestation of cultural stereotypes predominating in Mongolian society towards women's place in society. This attitude is spread widely in folks, films and is cultivated through mass media.

Main gender stereotypes affecting women's employment relate to childbearing and child-rearing responsibilities that are considered as solely women’s responsibility. This is reinforced by the law that reflects cultural attitudes. According to the Labour Code of Mongolia only mothers are entitled for childcare leave, fathers receive such leave only if they are single. Statistics clearly shows that women constituted 89.2 per cent of all people engaged in childcare, 72.6 per cent – of those who looks after elderly, disabled and sick. Women (72.3 per cent) could not take job because of their spouses work peculiarities compared to men (27.7 per cent).

Double burden of women as they are engaged in paid employment and work more hours in the household is explained by social attitude that considers household activities as women’s responsibility For example, rural women in general work 6 hours more in the household compared to their spouses and in urban areas – 3 hours more.

Common social attitude to women as weak sex is shown in the protectionist legislation towards them. Apart of prohibition of certain high paid jobs for women they retire 5 years earlier than men.

Cultural attitudes restrict women's political participation when political activity is seen as men's prerogative. Their membership in political parties, particularly in the top management bodies, is still significantly lower than men's. After democratic election 1996 discriminative trend for recruitment of politically loyal employees at all levels, including both private and public sectors, has affected women more than men. Many women were dismissed during this period from medium and junior level posts for being non-partisan. Similarly women have less opportunities for promotion at job. Stereotype of women worker and men manager is revealed in low opportunities for women to get professional training, retraining, advanced training or leadership training.

Training is organized mainly for leadership from which women are excluded. On the other hand, women's enormous workload in the household, child rearing and childbearing, caring after elderly, disabled and sick prevents them from being involved in training. Financial constraints affect women more as they earn less than men do. In general women have less opportunities for study and self-development.

In Mongolia practices in recruitment for any job are mainly built upon personal links, acquaintances, political affiliation, bribery or gender of a potential candidate for employment rather than his/her professional abilities, skills and experience. In the survey conducted by the Liberal Women’s Brain Pool amongst 260 urban and rural women 38 per cent of respondents stated that support for promotion of women to management position was as medium level, 22.3 - stated that no support is provided at all, 24.2 per cent stated that the issue is being considered and 10.7 per cent did not reply. On the question "What are the factors limiting women’s social participation?" 30.3 per cent replied social attitude, 29.6 per cent - lack of self-confidence, 17.6 per cent -double burden of work and family, 13.8 per cent - affiliation to a political party, 13 per cent - economic capability and 9.6 per cent - lack of professional experience.

Poor knowledge of legislation and human rights by all population, employers and employees aggravates situation. "Mongol savhi" company evaded payment of social insurance contributions collected from employees into the central social insurance fund since from 1995 to 1998. Employees of the factory were refused social insurance benefits, including many tens of women who could not get maternity benefits.

A survey conducted by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre in 1999 showed that 54.3 per cent of female respondents could not get benefits from the social insurance funds and 43.2 per cent said that they could not get maternity and childcare benefit.

Population in general has no experience in struggle against violations of human rights. Especially women, being less exposed to public sphere, suffer from lack of such knowledge. They have being more passive in demanding their rights compared to men. Trade Unions and few human rights organizations lack experience and are limited in their activities.

How discrimination affects women's lives

Participation in paid employment or work is one of the basic ways for an individual to take part in the public sphere and realize themselves as human beings. It is also the main source for earning basic living costs. Therefore, discrimination in employment affects women's lives in many ways. In a survey conducted by Mongolian Women Lawyers Association (MWLA) in three districts of Ulaanbaatar, 28.5 of participants indicated that direct gender discrimination exists in recruitment practices, 23.5 per cent - age limits, 8.5 per cent - having young children and 13.5 per cent did not determine any special reason for discrimination.

First of all, many women who lost jobs in privatization and structural adjustment have been impoverished and their life conditions significantly deteriorated. Female-headed households belong to one of the most vulnerable to poverty group of society. 11329 female headed households have 6 and over children, 20,825 - 3-5 children, 22,376 - up to three children out of a total 54530 female headed households. In 1999 in the capital Ulaanbaatar 29,000 households lived under poverty line, of which 11,464 are female headed households . In Orkhon aimag, female-headed households constitute 47.8 per cent of all families living under extreme poverty (1999).

Many of women have been pushed to work as self-employed or in the private sector, which cannot be considered as financially secure. In addition, thousands of women aged 36-40 who gave birth to four or more children were forced into poverty due to early retirement under the Pension’s legislation. Now all "early retired" persons receive a tiny compensation of 6240 MNT (6.2 USD) per month and the majority of them are women. For example, in the Bayanzurh district of Ulaanbaatar 80 percent of those who receive compensations are women.

Many professional and non-professional women had to change their occupations. For example, 38.8 per cent of respondents in the survey conducted by the National Centre Against Violence amongst 300 women stated that they stopped work in their professions in order to get a better income. According to data obtained by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre from the survey on 300 people in 1999, of whom men constituted 44.9 per cent and women - 55.09 per cent, 17.6 per cent of male and 30.2 per cent of female respondents have been engaged in highly insecure informal employment due to retirement, structural adjustment, manager’s attitude and gender (being female). Another example is that 15.6 per cent of female herders (compared to 11.9 per cent of male herders) have been forced into this path of employment after loss of their jobs. Many women are engaged in two or three different jobs, combining work in formal and informal sectors and additionally producing food and clothes for immediate needs of their families.

As result, workload of women has increased enormously. In rural areas herder women work from sunrise to sunset combining animal husbandry, production for sale and for own needs, housekeeping and childcare.

By September 1998 there were 114,012 unemployed women in Mongolia, 34,4 per cent of them were engaged in childcare. Currently, childcare centers are not filled as families cannot afford to pay for services or mothers are not able to find a job for themselves. In some cases parents prefer to bring up children at home.

Women cannot enjoy fully employment rights as they are limited in choice of job and are pushed to work in certain occupations or positions, mainly low-paid. Women aged over 35 are perceived too old for a job and promotion. Data obtained by the Women’s Information and Research Centre show that 6.8 per cent of all women employees work at the top managerial level, 43,8 per cent – at middle positions and 49.1 per cent – at auxiliary positions. Such limitations seriously decrease women's economic and social status. Women cannot use fully their knowledge, skills and energy for development of society and feel themselves as second class citizens. In general, limited opportunities for women in employment and less possibility to participate in public life significantly affect their self-confidence and self-esteem.

Having fewer opportunities for promotion women are restricted in their opportunities for increasing their incomes which like vicious circle affects their health, education and other opportunities.

Women who lose their wages become economically dependent on their husbands. Economic dependence of women on men leads to increase in domestic violence. According to the survey conducted by the National Centre Against Violence in 1998 amongst 170 working women in 6 districts of Ulaanbaatar city 29.1 per cent responded that employment is a source for economic independence, 30.5 per cent - improves their self-confidence and 20.2 per cent - power to spend a portion of income independently.

Lack of jobs contributes in widespread sexual harassment at workplace. Women resisting assaults from their supervisors or employers have to leave. They do not complain because of their fears to lose a job and get her marriage dissolved.

Loss of work and wages leads not only to deterioration of economic status but also to loss of opportunities for self-development. Currently there is no gender segregated statistical data on training of working women in formal sector. However, according to data by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre, 25.3 per cent have been attending retraining courses using their own savings, 50.7 per cent of them were men and 49.2 per cent – women. 74.6 per cent of all respondents replied that they have no opportunity to get training (48.3 per cent men and 51.6 per cent women). The reasons for this they described as financial constrains, need to look after children, poor opportunities in the family or temporary hindrances. Lower economic position of women explains that they are limited in possibilities for self-development not only in professional field but also in a broader sense. As women's lives are restricted to their direct duties, mainly childcare and housekeeping, in a relatively locked space in the private sphere.

Women constituting a majority in the informal sector are not able to enjoy paid leave and receive social insurance benefits. There is no working mechanism for compensation in the case of injuries or worsened health conditions caused by poor work conditions. All this has led to deterioration of women's health. In 1998 maternal mortality rate has increased by 0.28 compared to the previous year and reached 1.73 per 1000 live births.

Lack of day care facilities pushing women into their homes not only seriously limits their opportunities for self-development in terms of their education and professional field but also women lose possible incomes.

Unemployed women and those economically dependent on husbands suffer from domestic violence in larger extent than working women.

Lack of jobs and discrimination force women to accept any jobs, even in unhealthy work environment. Statistical data on this problem is not available. However, based on the data obtained by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre on informal employment 67.4 per cent of male respondents of their survey and 61.3 per cent of female respondents considered work conditions as being unsatisfactory or bad. 76.1 per cent of men and 61.1 per cent of women replied that their work conditions were both too cold and dusty or too hot, no fresh air and harmful. Men were mainly engaged in outdoor labour or in too hot conditions whereas women worked in premises without heating, dirty, dusty, damp or lacking fresh air. Almost all these people build their workplaces themselves, but do not have resources for improvement or do not pay attention to the issue. Gender disaggregated statistical data on occupational diseases is not available, however, from unofficial data says that number of such diseased has not been decreased during last years. Due to occupational diseases some women get conditions that complicates childbirth or causes giving birth to a weakened, disabled, unhealthy child, or become infertile; above-mentioned medical conditions may cause violence against women from their husbands. There is tendency for increase of diseases of reproductive organs and giving birth to unhealthy children.

Demands from some employers not to get pregnant and trend not to hire women with young children seriously restrict women's reproductive rights. Many women have to postpone or refuse from having children. Huge number of abortions occurred in the period of 1990-1995 demonstrated women's fear to lose their jobs and consequently, the need to contribute financially to the household income (see Annex2). Due to reproductive health education number of contraceptive users has steadily increased from 37 per cent in 1994 to 45.7 per cent in 1998.

Women engaged in the informal sector lose interest in having children. In data obtained from the survey conducted by the National CEDAW Watch Network Centre 56.3 per cent of female respondents have not received any benefits from the Social security funds. Moreover, 66.2 per cent of those women did not enjoy maternity leave (pre-birth) or child care leave, the other 33.7 per cent did not receive maternity (pre-birth) or child care benefits; benefits for many children or benefits for adoption and child rearing of infant or orphan children.

According to Mongolian legislation every citizen who pays contributions into the social insurance funds is entitled to various benefits from these funds. However, if a citizen does not pay contribution s/h is not eligible for benefits. In regard to reasons why they could not receive these benefits 33.7 per cent of respondents replied that participation in insurance scheme is not profitable, 22.4 per cent complained about lack of legal knowledge, 22.4 per cent that their incomes are too low for insurance contributions. 21.3 per cent said that they have no time to deal with social insurance services. However, their attitude towards health insurance was different: 31.6 per cent of men and 39.7 per cent of women have been participating in this type of insurance. Only 10 per cent of men and 8 per cent of women saw health insurance as unnecessary, 16 per cent of men and 12 per cent of women - that they would prefer to spend their low incomes for themselves instead of health insurance, 24 per cent of men and 18 per cent of women - that they have no time. All these reasons explain why women in informal sector and herder women are excluded from social security benefits. Moreover, herder women do not enjoy pre-maternity leave and do not receive maternity and childcare benefits unless they are extremely poor.

Women are not able to resume their jobs in the time prescribed by the law, may of them lose their positions because of their pregnancy and giving birth.

Participants of the 1997 survey conducted by the National Centre Against Violence amongst unemployed women indicated that 33.1 per cent of respondents were not able to find a job, 29.2 per cent - that their husbands do not permit them to work, 16.1 per cent - were undertaking child care responsibilities, 10.8 per cent - suffered from poor health, 5.4 per cent - were not interested in working and 5.4 per cent - were retired. Economic loss causes psychological loss for women.

Being engaged in undervalued domestic labour, being less visible in the public sphere, having less opportunity for training, professional growth women lose interest in more productive work. They feel themselves as second class citizens whose destiny is to spend their lives in a more limited environment. Women who combines work and family and at the same time trying to build up career feel guilty in society and own family. Women cannot fully contribute experiences, knowledge and skills they possess in the development of the society. In 1998 Liberal Women’s Brain Pool conducted the first phase of a survey amongst women employees of the Office of Cabinet and 9 Ministries and their offices with the purpose to reveal resources for promotion of women leaders. Only 16 per cent of respondents said that their Ministries, departments and divisions implement gender equality policy in promotion, 76.7 per cent said that such policy has not been implemented and 7.1 per cent did not reply. On the question of what causes low promotion of women to higher posts 34.1 per cent saw that being a woman, 24.3 per cent - women’s child-bearing and child-rearing responsibility, 19.7 per cent - absence of management and organizational capability, 19.5 per cent - women have less time for self-development because of housekeeping duties are mainly seen as responsibility of women and nobody replied that women lack education. 63.7 per cent of all respondents saw that gender awareness of policy makers in the ministries was not satisfactory and only 36.2 per cent - that policy makers were aware of gender issues.

MEASURES TAKEN BY THE GOVERNMENT AND RESULTS

The Government has adopted The National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women in 1996 as a follow-up of the Beijing World Conference on Women. The document identified ten critical areas of concern and defined long-term objectives in achieving genuine gender equality. Regrettably, implementation of this important policy document has not been satisfactory. Under the CEDAW provisions and the National Plan of Action a little has been done by the government in the field of employment. Additionally, Government of Mongolia implements another two major national programmes aimed at improvement in employment: The National Poverty Alleviation Programme and The National Programme on Reduction of Unemployment.

For example, the document prepared in 1998 by the Ministry of Health and Social Welfare on the implementation of the National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women and future measures has noted that almost no measures have been taken by the government in regard to training for women who return to employment after long leaves of absence for child-rearing, care of parents or spouse, or sickness and for young women in promoting non-traditional and technical skills. Few exceptions are following measures:

• Government with support of UNESCO in 1994-1996 implemented "Informal education of Gobi herder women".
  
• Training on women’s employment issues and vocational training was organized for government and NGO participants by International Labour Organization and Social and Economic Commission for Asia Pacific.
  
• 1482 women from 7 districts of Ulaanbaatar were trained within "Learn and Live" training project. They have acquired 14 professions.
  

Government implements National Poverty Alleviation Programme that involves Women Development Fund, Rural Poverty Alleviation and Microcredit which are promoted with technical assistance USD 1.7 million from UNDP and USD 5 million from International Agricultural Fund. Income generation 2464 projects worth USD 1.6 million for vulnerable groups were implemented until 1998. 23,000 poor people have been provided with permanent employment. The Rural development implemented 374 projects worth 1.108 USD that provided 12,100 people with temporary jobs. Disabled women received small-scale low interest loans from the "Income Generation Fund for Vulnerable Groups of Population". In 1992-1995 a total 160.000 MNT loans was given to unemployed from the Fund for Assistance to Employment through Labour Regulation offices. 2000 new jobs were created for women.




In the last ten years public medical services have done a little in terms of creation of a system designed for changing attitudes towards health care and medical checks of population and women, any preventive activities have been at a standstill. Regular medical check is required only for those engaged in food processing and related services and all other female employees of both formal and informal sectors have been omitted from attention.

90,791 women received maternity benefits of a total 1.8 billion MNT and 93,527 women received childcare benefit of a total 1.6 billion MNT Mothers received 40 million MNT infant childcare aid and 9175 poor mothers (fathers) received aid of 40.2 millions MNT in 1997.

The National Programme for Improvement of Safe and Healthy Conditions of Work was adopted by the government in 1997. The national inspection on labor protection situation was held by The Labour and Social Protection Control Authority of Mongolia that covered all sectors of economy with the purpose to improve labour safety and work conditions. 4952 entities, 191,978 workers, including 49 per cent of women, were inspected. 30.5 per cent of all injured at workplace were women.

30 million MNT have been allocated for the implementation of the National Programme of Action for the Advancement of Women, however, this amount was not spent due to financial constraints in the country. This clearly demonstrates that the government does not pay adequate attention to women’s issues.

RECOMMENDATIONS TO THE GOVERNMENT

To the Parliament:

• to amend legislation in order to make maternity benefit, including child-rearing leave, no less than wage that woman was earning in the paid employment according to the Article 11-2-b of the CEDAW
  
• to provide legal opportunity for free choice of work for women and to remove provisions in legislation that establish different conditions for old age retirement such us number of children, age, and number of years in paid employment regarding to the Articles 11-1-a, b, c; 2-d, e; and 5-a, b of the CEDAW
  
• to make amendments to the Law on State Service, Law on Economic Entities, Criminal Procedural Law, Labor Code, Civil Procedural Law in order to impose penalties on infringes of women’s human rights according to the Articles 2-b, d; and 11-2-a of the CEDAW
  
• to amend existing legislation on Labour and Education in order to incorporate provisions bounding employers to organize training for women who require to be retrained after long-term child-rearing leave according to the Articles 3; 10-a, c, d, and of the CEDAW.
  
• to amend social insurance laws to ensure payment of unemployment insurance, insurance for industrial injury and occupational disease from the corresponding funds
  
• to study trends on the reasons for population to avoid payment of social insurance contributions and development of new legislation susceptible to public needs and, after public discussion, adopt such legislation
  
• to conduct public opinion survey on the laws that contradict each other
  
• to issue a law on Support of Employment
  
• to demand the Cabinet develops regulations enabling enjoyment by all citizens of their rights prescribed in the Article 16(2) of Constitution of Mongolia and Article 4 (2) of the Labour Code.

To the Government

• to use media on advocacy of the women’s employment rights issue, make a special programmes on TV and Radio
  
• to organize training and seminars on gender equality in employment at local levels to involving business people from the entities in order to implement the provisions of the Article 11, 2, 3, 5 and 14 of the CEDAW
  
• to encourage companies and organizations to open day care facilities by imposition of lower taxes and to create new child care facilities for disabled children in order to allow their parents to work according to the Article 11-2-c of the CEDAW
  
• search for sources of foreign aid interested in importing advanced technologies and equipment to be used in child rearing and bringing up
  
• to create a system to encourage women to develop their professional skills in order to increase women’s participation in public life, to ensure implementation of such activities in the personnel policies of organizations and economic entities regarding to the Article 11-1- c of the CEDAW.
  
• to develop criteria for selection of public servants based on gender equality principle and ensure their implementation at central and local government levels as well as by entities with different types of property according to the Article 11-1-b, 2-d, e and 5-a of the CEDAW.
  
• to request adoption of legal regulations by legislature to encourage mechanisms for social institutions that implement gender equality principles according to the Articles 2-a, b, c, e; 3 and 11 of the CEDAW
  
• to accumulate capital earned from privatization of plants and other economic entities into a special fund an informal sector’s employment to ensure the implementation of provisions of the Articles 11, 2, 4, 5, 7, 14 and 16 of the CEDAW
  
• to consider and implement question of submitting reports by the governmental and private sector employers on the implementation of women’s rights to work according to the Articles 2-d, 11-a, c of the CEDAW
  
• encourage employers that solve labour protection problems for citizens engaged in heavy and harmful workplaces
  
• to take urgent measures to address the causes of violations of women’s employment rights, to increase responsibility of central and local governmental organizations and individual officials in regard to implement provisions of the Articles 2-c, d; 5-a; 11-1-a, b, 11-2- a, b, c, d of the CEDAW
  
• to conduct research on the legal practice that deals with violations of women’s rights in relation to employment issues in a year 2000.
  
• to make a survey on the safety of work conditions in the jobs that are currently prohibited for women and demand employers create favourable conditions of work for women, including pregnant women in cooperation with women’s NGOs and Trade Unions in a year 2001.
  
• to create a machinery (system) for monitoring implementation of the goals set in the governmental policy on Women’s Human Rights under the CEDAW in a year 2000
  
• to develop and submit new laws such as Anti-Discrimination Law, directed to eliminate discrimination, in the years 2000-2001 according to the Article 2-b, 4-1, 5-a and 11-1 of the CEDAW
  

To political parties:

• To increase number of female members, including at top leadership level
  
• To implement policy on maintaining gender balance in election of party’s decision- making bodies at all levels
  
• To increase number of women candidates for running to the National and Local offices not less then 20 percent
  
• To involve the potential women into the political life and retrain them for running to the governmental office in the Election-2000
  

To legal organizations:

• to impose penalties or other appropriate measures on officials that have not created equal opportunities and discriminated against women on the basis of their gender in recruitment and promotion according to provisions of the Convention and appropriate legislation
  
• to take measures to relieve consequences of violations of women’s rights

Four. Conclusions

18 years has passed since Mongolia ratified UN Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women. During this time various measures have been taken in order to implement political, economic and social rights of women. Principles and ideas of the Convention have not been fully implemented either in real life or in Mongolian legislation. This report focuses on the discrimination that women still face in the field of employment and violations of women’s human rights enshrined in the Article 11 of the Convention.

Joining CEDAW does not automatically lead to decrease or elimination of violations of women’s human rights. Every citizen should be aware that the state is obliged to create opportunities to enable women to fully enjoy their legitimate and moral rights. Responsibility, knowledge, awareness, conscience and will of legislators and decision-makers as politicians is crucial. At the same time, every citizen should be aware of own rights in all spheres of public life and be capable of fighting for them.

Although the Constitution of Mongolia and other legislation declares equal rights of men and women in all spheres of public life in reality conditions have not been created to implement them and proper measures have not been taken. Such situation leads to violation of rights of all citizens and particularly violations of women’s human rights.

Laws that declare equality are considered as only symbolic and they treat men and women with the sameness approach. For example, women and men are entitled to rights to vote and to be elected in the same way, however, no measures are taken in order to change social norms formed during hundreds of years that men manage the state, to eradicate gender imbalance in power and restore this violation of rights. This is the reason why women have always been behind men in the political participation.

The protectionist approach is widespread in Mongolian legislation, which takes childbearing capability of women as a basis to restrict women’s rights in employment such as establishment of earlier retirement age for women or prohibition from certain jobs. Such legislation includes the Pensions Law, Labour Code and Social Security Law. These are legalized violations of economic and social rights.

Proper legislation should consider women’s childbearing activity as a social duty and cannot be used as a basis for discrimination. However laws not only see women as childbearing persons but also prescribe to women child rearing responsibility. They legalize social norms and customs in this discriminating way. For example, Articles 78-83 of the old Labour Code and Articles 100-108 of the new Labor Law enumerate rights and duties of mothers in child rearing. According to these provisions, fathers are not entitled to receive benefits even if they wish to do child-care. Such laws pushing mothers to solely carry out this activity contradict provisions of the Constitution of Mongolia and the Convention in regard of equal rights of parents and spouses.

The mechanism for implementation of equal rights is weak and the problem of its strengthening itself is a big task. There are any discriminatory provisions such as distinction, exclusion or restriction of men’s human rights at all, but as it was aforementioned there are lots of provisions, which has been discriminating political, economic, social and cultural rights of Women in the Mongolian legislation.

These facts explain why national policies are gender blind or gender biased and measures taken by the government in the elimination of discrimination against women are not effective. Most of policy makers themselves are not gender sensitive and therefore, legislation produced by such legislators is deficient.

This report is devoted to the problems related to discrimination that women face in employment. It was not our purpose to describe a whole picture of women’s rights.

To conclude, discrimination of women exists in the legislation as well as in reality. Cases of discrimination are easily recognized in media, operation of entities and organizations, in methods, ideology and mentality of management.

The Baseline report is written in accordance with the Article 11 of the CEDAW within the suggested framework.

USED MATERIALS

Laws:

1. Constitution of Mongolia

2. Family Law

3. Labour Law

4. Civil Procedure Law

5. Law on Pensions

6. Social Security Law

Research Materials:

1. Compilation of Statistical data of the State Statistical Office

2. Report on "Economic situation of Mongolian women in transition", WIRC, 1998

3. Report of the survey, National CEDAW Watch Network Centre, 1999

4. Report of the survey on Women’s Political participation, by Liberal Women’s Brain Pool

5. Survey on Domestic Violence, Centre Against Violence

6. Survey by the Women Lawyer’ Association

8. Women and Men in Mongolia.The National Statistical Office of Mongolia, 1999

9. Bulletin of the State Statistical Office, Ulaanbaatar 1998

10. Employment. State Statistical Office, Ulaanbaatar, 1999

11. Information on Gender. WIRC, 1997, Ulaanbaatar

12. Employment in informal sector, The National CEDAW Watch Network Centre, 1999,

Ulaanbaatar

13. Annual Bulletin of the National Statistical Office, 1998

14. Survey by the CEDAW Watch Network, 1997-1998

Other materials:

1. National program of Action for the Advancement of Women, 1996

2. Human development report, UNDP, 1997

3. Report on Employment. State Statistical Office, 1999

4. Gender policy and statistics. Materials of the Conference, 1999

5. Information on the Implementation of the National Plan of Action for the Advancement of Women. Ministry of health and Social Welfare, 1999

7. UNESCO, 1990. Status of Women; Mongolia, RUSHAP Series on Monographs and occasional papers (Bangkok, UNESCO Principal Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific)

8. Personal data of Ms Zanaa, 1999, Ulaanbaatar

9. Report by Regzen, Head of Department of the Social Policy of the Orkhon aimag, at the National Sympozium on Implementation of Beijing Platform of Action, July 22-23, 1999

10. Annual Report of the Health Statistical Information Centre, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare, 1998

11. Report of the Bayanzurkh district Social Insurance Department, 1998

12. Report of the Mr Hadhuu, Municipal Council of Ulaanbaatar, at the National Sympozium on Implementation of Beijing Platform of Action, July 22-23, 1999

Contributors to the Report - NGOs and representatives from the governmental organizations

1. National CEDAW Watch Network Center
2. Liberal Women’s Brain Pool
3. Mongolian Women’s Federation
4. Women for Social Progress Movement
5. Women Lawyer’s Association
6. National Centre Against Violence
7. Women’s Information and Research Center
8. Sh. Algirmaa, Researcher
9. D. Altai, Chair, Mongolian Socialist Democratic Women’s Association
10. J.Altantsetseg, Head of Division, Department of Youth, Family and Women, Ministry of Health and Social Welfare.
    
11. Yu. Ariunzayat, Deputy-Chair, Mongolian Social Democratic Women’s Movement
    
12. N. Ayush, Secretary of the Standing Committee on Women’s Affairs, General Council of Mongolian Trade Union
    
13. L. Ariunchimeg, Researcher, Women’s Information and Research Center
    
14. O. Baigalmaa, Officer, Mongolian Socialist Democratic Women’s Association
    
15. N. Batnasan, Officer, Department of Strategic Planning and Policy, Ministry of Health and Welfare
    
16. J. Bayartsetseg, Officer, Liberal Women’s Brain Pool
    
17. N. Chinchuluun, Executive Direct, Mongolian Women Lawyers Association
    
18. D. Chimeddagva, Head, Department of Economic Policy, Ministry of Finance
    
19. D. Haliun, Chair of the National Tourism Center of Mongolia
    
20. B. Hishigsaihan, Officer, Women for Social Progress Movement
    
21. S.Davaasuren, Manager, In Gurvaljin Company
    
22. Ts. Davaasuren, Chair, National Statistical Office
    
23. L. Enhjargal, Assistant-Director, The National CEDAW Watch Network Center
    
24. D. Enhjargal, Lawyer, The National Center Against Violence
    
25. J. Erdenechimeg, Vice-President, Mongolian Women’s Federation
    
26. I.Ganbileg, Interpreter
    
27. N. Gandulam, Lawyer, Mongolian Women Lawyers Association
    
28. N. Gerelsuren, President, Mongolian Women’s Federation
    
29. Ts. Gombosuren, Head, District Labour Regulation Office, Bayangol District
    
30. H. Monhzul, Officer, The National Center Against Violence
    
31. D.Naranbileg, Journalist, Newspaper, "Business Times"
    
32. D. Harantuya, Deputy-Chair, Foundation for Rural Women’s Development
    
33. S. Narmandah, Governor, Chingelmei District of Ulaanbaatar
    
34. L.Ider, Consultant, Supreme Court
    
35. L. Jagralsaihan, Officer on Social Policy, Office of the President
    
36. Ts. Oyunsan, Executive Director, Liberal Women’s Brain Pool
    
37. L. Purevsuren, Director, "And" Foundation
    
38. M. Sarantuya, Officer, UNFPA
    
39. R. Sarantsetseg, Economist, The Bank of Mongolia, Department of Financial Policy
    
40. P. Suhbaatar, Officer, Youth and Social Policy, Municipal Council of Ulaanbaatar City
    
41. P. Tovuuhorol, Head, District labour Regulation Office, Bayangol District
    
42. N. Tungalag, Officer, Ministry of Justice
    
43. S. Tsengelmaa, Researcher, Women’s Information and Research Center
    
44. G. Urantsetseg, Executive Director, Business Women’s Association
    
45. O. Zaya, President, Business Women’s Association
    
46. J. Zanaa, Director, The National CEDAW Watch Network Center
    

The report is written by J.Zanaa, The National CEDAW Watch Network Centre
Translated by D.Amarsanaa, UNOHCHR

Edited by Arthi Patel, MWLA

September 27, 1999. Ulaanbaatar. Mongolia